ALL+ABOUT+PLGs

My plan is to use the PLGs instead of Professional Development Groups A and B The commitment by staff is to 2 PLGs per term, however if they want more, we can make some time available for them. The PLGs will consist of groups of teachers who meet because they have a common goal. The Registered Teacher Criteria provides at least 12 areas to focus on as do the school goals and what we have learnt from the Literacy Project.
 * The idea**

Teachers at Wellington Girls’ College work in learning groups for professional development that relates to the school’s annual goals. All teachers belong to a cross-curricular learning group. They take responsibility for their own professional learning, as they are encouraged to gather groups around common areas of interest and use a process of evidence-based inquiry. Deputy principal Anne Coster explains, “If you support this culture of reflection and positive self-review; if you empower teachers to do this amongst themselves, then you also empower them to transfer it to the students in the classroom, and really that’s the ultimate aim of all of this.” The teachers decide on a focus that is particularly important for them. They develop and trial new strategies and learning activities, and reflect both individually and as a group on the outcomes. This digital story highlights learning groups for Māori engagement and achievement, and the transparent classroom where teachers explore ways to develop and share learning intentions with students, based on co-creating success criteria. The classroom strategies developed by these learning groups also provide students with opportunities to make decisions about how and when they undertake certain learning activities.
 * WELLINGTON GIRLS COLLEGE**

**Professional Learning Groups in Secondary Schools: What makes them effective? **

**Roger Baldwin ** **UC Education Plus ** **University **** of Canterbury ** **New Zealand ** roger.baldwin@canterbury.ac.nz

**A paper presented at the NZARE conference, Palmerston North ** **November 2008 **

**Abstract ** The current context of significant change in education in New Zealand has highlighted the need for professional learning that can assist teachers to develop understanding and implementation of effective practice. Teacher professional learning is widely acknowledged as a critical component that will contribute to the effectiveness of any school. However, some characteristics of secondary schools have presented particular challenges as they seek to further develop the quality of the professional learning opportunities that they provide. A number of schools have established professional learning groups as one approach. This paper reviews the characteristics of effective professional learning groups suggested by research studies, and outlines the nature, focus and operation of such groups in two New Zealand secondary schools. **Introduction ** Education in New Zealand has experienced significant change in the last decade. Changes have included revision of the curriculum for all learning area and the introduction of a new assessment system for senior secondary students. There has also been a continuing focus on developing effective pedagogy, improving the achievement of diverse students and building the quality of leadership and management in schools. Such initiatives and developments have meant that it is increasingly important for teachers to have appropriate opportunities for professional learning.

The provision of effective professional learning is considered to be critical in supporting teachers to develop their understanding and implementation of effective practice, and ultimately lead to improvement in student learning outcomes. This has been highlighted in the Teacher Professional Learning and Development Best Evidence Synthesis Iteration (Timperley et al., 2007). While such research has indicated the features of professional learning that are likely to support desired outcomes, many schools are continuing to look for approaches that will be most effective for their staff. There are some particular characteristics of secondary schools that have presented challenges to developing effective professional learning. A number of schools have established professional learning groups (PLGs) as one approach to meeting these challenges. However, there has been relatively little research into the effectiveness of such groups. This paper briefly outlines the importance of professional learning in the secondary school context, reviews relevant research on PLGs, and then outlines the experiences of two schools that have introduced such groups. **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Professional learning ** <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The importance of professional learning for supporting continuous improvement in teaching practice has been widely acknowledged in New Zealand (for example, in the Ministry of Education’s Schooling Strategy 2005 - 2010). Although the link between teacher professional learning and student learning outcomes has not been always easy to establish, research has indicated that effective teacher professional learning can make a difference (Miers & Ingvarson, 2005; Timperely et al., 2007). Useful summaries of the features that are likely to contribute to making professional development effective have been provided by Hill et al. (2002), Pigott-Irvine (2006) and Poskitt (2001). There is a clear expectation that schools will provide ongoing opportunities for professional development and learning, and that teachers will participate in these. For example, the Satisfactory Teacher Dimensions of the New Zealand Teachers Council state that “A satisfactory teacher in showing leadership…encourages others and participates in professional development.” <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">While professional development initiatives have often taken place at national, regional or school cluster levels, the professional learning that can take place within a school deserves a particular emphasis. This is because it is located where teaching and learning occurs, and can be more readily contextualized. It also allows more easily for the implementation of a teaching as inquiry approach (as outlined in The New Zealand Curriculum, 2007, p. 35). Ávila De Lima (2001) highlighted the importance of individual schools as effective sites for conceiving, promoting and sustaining change. Poskitt (2001) outlined the increasing emphasis on the development of ‘school-grown’ models of effective professional development in New Zealand, and listed critical factors that are likely to make this successful. Timperley et al. (2003) also noted the effectiveness of strong professional learning communities within schools in relation to bringing about significant changes in student achievement. **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Professional learning in secondary schools ** <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The nature and structure of secondary schools present a number of challenges for professional learning. These schools are typically larger and more complex than primary schools. Teachers are usually specialists in a learning area, and teach large numbers of students. Poskitt (2001) has noted that such characteristics may create communication and organisational challenges. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">A key feature that has been highlighted is the way secondary schools are organised into subject based departments (Bolam et al., 2005; Stoll & Louis, 2007; Timperley et al., 2007). Such an institutional structure may make it difficult to respond to pressures for change, as departments may have developed their own distinctive culture. Subject knowledge and organisational matters may take priority for department members over shared knowledge related to teaching and learning. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Suggestions have been made on ways to meet the challenges found in secondary schools, particularly to overcome barriers created by departmental structures and improve collaboration. Milbrey et al. (2007) and Timperley et al. (2007) have outlined a variety of approaches that can support cross-curricular learning, including: <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Some secondary schools have established cross-curricular teacher groups to specifically support professional learning. A number of recent teaching and learning initiatives have created greater opportunities for a cross-curricular focus in schools, such as assessment for learning, literacy development, effective use of ICT, and raising the achievement of Maori students. The current emphasis on the implementation of the revised curriculum for New Zealand also provides such opportunities. For example, the curriculum principle of Coherence emphasises links within and across learning areas. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The importance of groups of teachers working collegially has been stressed by Ávila De Lima (2001), who noted that groups stimulate educational innovation and professional learning, while a lack of contact with others deprives teachers of critical feedback and a variety of perspectives. King and Newmann (2001) suggested that teacher learning is most likely to occur when teachers have opportunities to collaborate with professional peers, and also that learning in groups across the school will better support whole school improvement. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The Curriculum Innovation Projects, conducted over 2003 – 2004 in a number of secondary schools, indicated the effectiveness of developing learning communities (including groups of teachers within schools) and using these as a vehicle to manage the change process (Boyd, 2005). A heightened sense of collegiality was a key outcome of the projects, and teachers valued the breaking down of departmental silos. **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Professional learning groups ** <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The PLGs that have been established in secondary schools exist in a number of forms. Their common characteristics are: <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Relatively little investigation has been carried out specifically into such groups within schools. However, there has been considerable research on teachers’ collaborative professional learning, particularly in professional learning communities (PLCs). Stoll and Louis (2007) pointed out that, while there is no universal definition of PLCs, they are characterised by a group of teachers sharing and critically interrogating their practice in an ongoing, reflective, collaborative, inclusive, learning-oriented, growth promoting way. Key aspects of PLCs (Bolam et al., 2005; Hord and Hirsh, 2008) are that they consist of the staff of a school (professionals who have responsibility for delivering programmes to support student learning), focus on learning (adult learning to ensure student learning), and that the learning takes place collegially (in a community). <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Although PLCs can exist at different levels (groups within schools, whole schools, teachers from across schools and clusters of schools), many research findings related to these are relevant to PLGs. PLGs are a type of PLC at a sub school level. As they have many of the same main characteristics, a range of literature sources related to PLCs has been used to inform the following comments about PLGs.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">focusing on an aspect of teaching that was relevant to all learning areas
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">school leaders committing time and resources and providing public support
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">having a mechanism to help teachers to translate new practice into their own classroom contexts
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">developing common language and purpose through inquiry
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">basing school decisions on evidence
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">using a variety of structures other than subject departments for grouping teachers for professional learning purposes.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">they are groups smaller than the whole staff
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">the teachers in each group come from a range of learning areas
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">they focus on cross-curricular topics related to teaching and learning
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">their intention is to develop teacher understanding and enhance practice, with the ultimate goal of improving student outcomes.

**<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Characteristics of effective professional learning groups ** <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The characteristics that are needed for PLGs to be effective can be considered in terms of their nature, what they focus on, and how they are organised and operate within schools. The following characteristics have been highlighted by Bolam et al. (2005), Hord and Hirsh (2008), Milbrey et al. (2007), and Timperley et al. (2007). **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">1) The nature of groups **

//<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Shared values and vision. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';"> Members of the group have agreed common goals related to benefiting students in the school.

//<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Collective responsibility. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';"> Members of the group consistently take collective responsibility for student learning. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Collaboration. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Teachers are involved in developmental activities that have consequences for more than one person. Collaboration often includes joint review and feedback on practice. Interdependence is central to such collaboration. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Group, as well as individual, learning is promoted. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Collective learning is evident, whereby teachers interact, engage in dialogue that challenges beliefs, and interpret information communally. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Trust, respect and support. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Good professional relationships between staff in a group are important for the growth of a learning community. Groups should be inclusive. **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">2) The focus of groups ** //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Student learning. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Teachers understand that supporting a positive impact on student learning is the main purpose for teacher professional learning in groups. They believe that they can make a difference.   //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Reflective professional inquiry. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">This involves teachers having conversations about significant educational issues in a sustained manner, and examining their own practice and that of their peers (through a teaching as inquiry process). There is an evidence-based focus. Engaging student voice is often helpful.   **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">3) The organisation and operation of groups ** //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Supportive and shared leadership. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">The active and public support of the principal for professional learning within the school is a key factor. The development of distributed leadership for groups supports increasing professionalism and feelings of self-efficacy for teachers. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Supportive conditions. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';"> Structural support may include arranging time and venues for meetings, and other resources such as materials and information. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">External expertise, networks and partnerships. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Input from beyond the school brings new perspectives, and helps build knowledge and skills to promote, sustain and extend groups. Involving someone with expertise from outside the school can result in more challenging dialogue.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Although they are listed separately, it is apparent that many of the characteristics noted are interlinked, and will operated together to make PLGs effective.

**<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Evaluating the effectiveness of professional learning groups ** <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The effectiveness of PLGs should be considered in terms of whether they have made a positive difference. Bolam et al. (2005) have suggested that effectiveness can be judged by three criteria: <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">These criteria can be used by schools when they consider the extent to which PLGs within their schools are effective. Impact on students should be a major consideration. A ‘teaching as inquiry’ approach (as outlined in The New Zealand Curriculum p. 35) can be used as a framework by teachers as they implement and reflect on the strategies to support student learning that they have developed as a result of professional learning. However, as there are many factors that impact on students it may be difficult to identify the specific effects of particular approaches to teacher professional learning. Effectiveness can be considered more widely in terms of the development of teacher understandings about, and the enhancement of their practice. Effective PLGs will also have the capacity to develop and be sustained over time. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Bolam et al. (2005) noted that schools rarely monitored and evaluated the impact of professional learning or the processes of PLC operation, and this meant that follow-up action was not always taken to maximise their effectiveness. In order to assist schools with this they suggested a //PLC// //Development Profile// that could be adapted and used as a self audit tool. This profile lists twelve characteristics and processes, and it is suggested that schools rate the effectiveness of each of these in their context on a high to low scale.
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">the ultimate impact on students (their learning and social development)
 * 2) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">the intermediate impact on teacher professional learning performance and morale
 * 3) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">the extent to which PLC characteristics and processes can be developed and sustained over time.

**<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Table 1 PLC Development Profile ** <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Source Bolam et al. (2005, p. 154.) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">As PLGs require considerable teacher commitment and time within a school, it is important that their effectiveness be considered, and that adaptations and changes are made if necessary.
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: right;">High-Low
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Shared values and vision
 * 2) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Collective responsibility for pupils’ learning
 * 3) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Collaboration focused on learning
 * 4) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Professional learning: individual and collective
 * 5) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Reflective professional enquiry
 * 6) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Openness, networks and partnerships
 * 7) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Inclusive membership
 * 8) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Mutual trust, respect and support
 * 9) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Optimising resources and structures to promote the PLC
 * 10) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Promoting professional learning: individual and collective
 * 11) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Evaluating and sustaining the PLC
 * 12) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Leading and managing the PLC ||

**<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">A note of caution ** <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">While the concept of professional learning communities and groups has broad support and they can lead to improved teacher understandings and outcomes for students, their establishment does not necessarily ensure that this will occur. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;"> Hargreaves (2008, p. 176) suggested that such communities can: <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">He pointed out that it is critical to focus on the former in each case, and for schools to develop communities that empower teachers, rather than contain and control them. He also concluded that we need to move beyond designing communities as mandated teams focused on generating instant gains in tested achievement, to a focus on broader and deeper learning – to something that is more educationally sound and professionally sustainable. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The act of forming groups in schools does not automatically make them effective. Timperley et al. (2007) referred to research that indicated while participation in structured professional groups often occurred, several studies associated such participation with neutral or negative outcomes for students. This could be because the groups acted to reinforce the status quo, with change messages misunderstood or resisted. Teachers who held different perspectives that could have served as a resource for professional learning may have been marginalised. Quint (2008) noted that teachers within small learning communities often discussed individual students or activities, rather than pedagogical concerns. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">In order to ensure that professional learning communities and groups remain as effective models to support the development of teacher understandings and student outcomes, it is necessary to reflect critically on their core principles. DuFour (2004) expressed a concern that the term PLC is in danger of loosing its meaning, and that confusion and implementation problems could lead to abandonment of this reform approach. He highlighted the importance of commitment and persistence by teachers to initiate and sustain the concept, and outlined three big ideas to guide reflection on its merits. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Therefore, while the concept of learning communities and groups has considerable potential to support professional learning, it can be a challenge in many schools to ensure that they are effective. The following case studies provide an illustration of how this challenge is being met in two New Zealand secondary schools.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">improve student learning, or simply elevate scores on high-stakes tests
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">heighten the capacity for community reflection, or enforce collective compliance
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">help to broaden children’s learning, or narrow learning to a focus on basics.
 * 1) //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Ensuring that students learn. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">This involves shifting from a focus on teaching to a focus on learning.
 * 2) //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">A culture of collaboration. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Structures to promote a collaborative culture are created.
 * 3) //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">A focus on results. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Working together to improve student outcomes becomes the routine work of everyone in the school.

**<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Case studies ** <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">In order to gain some understanding of PLGs in the local context, an investigation was carried out in two secondary schools. My role as an in-service adviser had allowed me to gain an awareness of the various models of professional development used by schools. The schools selected were known within the educational community to have cross-curricular learning groups that were supportive of professional learning. Both of the schools had taken the initiative to establish PLGs themselves, without external input. My role was just to gain an understanding of the groups. The investigation allowed information to be gathered on the nature, focus, and organisation and operation of these groups in each school. The intention was to gain some insight into the effectiveness of PLGs. However, the small-scale nature of the investigation means that it is not possible to generalise widely. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">One of the schools selected is a relatively large, coeducational, year 9 to 13 secondary school located in a city. (This school will be referred to as school A.) The other school (school B) is a smaller, coeducational year 7 to 13 school, located in a country town. **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Methodology ** <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">A member of the senior leadership team in each school was interviewed to gain a general understanding of the PLGs. Also a teacher in each of four different PLGs was interviewed to gain their perspectives (they were selected by the school). Semi-structured interviews were used in each case. An audio recording was made of each interview and notes were taken of responses. The data gathered were collated under each of the questions asked, common themes were identified, and the responses were considered in relation to findings from other researchers. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The interviews with the school leaders focused on the establishment, organisation and operation of the groups across the school, links to whole school professional development, and approaches to determining the effectiveness of the groups. The interviews with the teacher representatives were designed to gain additional perspectives, from a participant’s point of view. These focused on gathering information in relation to some characteristics of effective professional learning groups outlined previously in this paper. All interviewees were also asked for their views on what factors they consider support the effectiveness of PLGs, and what factors hinder their effectiveness. **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Findings ** <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">School A had established four large groups (from 18 to 30 teachers in a group). Each group had a focus; co-operative learning, higher order thinking, formative assessment, or action research. The school had identified the first three focus areas as a result of involvement in schooling improvement initiatives. The action research group was set up subsequently to provide a framework for teachers to inquire into their practice. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">School B had eight relatively small groups (from three to five teachers in each). Each group had a particular focus; school relationships, leadership models, school disengagement, school structure, Key Competencies, cross curricular learning, classroom engagement and nutritional impact on learning. These focus areas had been identified by the school leadership. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The following characteristics were evident in both schools. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The school leaders interviewed both considered that the groups were effective in supporting teacher understanding and student learning. They reported that the levels of collegiality and professional discussion among the staff had increased, including outside of the group meetings. They also suggested that teachers appreciated the chance to meet with others from different learning areas. One leader commented: <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Teachers believe that what they are doing in classrooms has made a difference. Staff are more collegial and work together more. There is more professional discussion to support learning. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">However, they did perceive that not all teachers were necessarily committed to maximising their participation in the groups. Both schools had been able to monitor the effectiveness of the groups to some extent, for example through surveys, providing for feed back sessions to other staff, and having the members of the senior leadership team involved. However, it was acknowledged that it is difficult to determine the particular impact of the groups on teacher understanding, and more importantly student learning. Both school leaders considered that as the focus of the groups had arisen out of needs identified by the schools themselves, rather than being externally imposed, this led to greater staff buy in and engagement. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The teachers interviewed generally confirmed the views of the school leaders. They considered that professional discussion with their colleagues had increased, all had completed some activities between the group meetings (including in-class), and there was a positive attitude to the PLGs. Many mentioned that they appreciated meeting with teachers from other learning areas, as this allowed for different experiences and perspectives to be shared. A view expressed by a teacher was: <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The groups have helped build the culture of professional learning. Teachers have more positive professional connections now. The cross-curricular focus is helpful – this supports the New Zealand Curriculum emphasis. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The teachers were also asked to give an indication of the level of the effectiveness of their group, for a number of the characteristics related to the nature of effective professional learning groups suggested by other research. Their general responses are summarised in table 2. However, the small sample size means that it is not possible to comment definitively on the effectiveness of PLGs in the case study schools. **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Table 2 The nature of PLGs in the case study schools ** <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Some of the teachers in school A felt that the relatively large size of the groups made it somewhat difficult to foster characteristics such as collective responsibility or group learning. However, there were opportunities to do this when teachers from these groups worked in pairs. In some cases it had taken time for the groups to develop shared values and vision. All teachers interviewed indicated that teachers in their PLG were able to be open and honest in their comments, because of the high levels of trust, respect and support that existed. Teacher comments included: <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">People feel confident to speak up and respond. There is a free and open sharing of ideas. People can challenge others. **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Discussion ** <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The characteristics of the PLGs in the two schools match many of the characteristics of effective groups highlighted by research (Bolam et al., 2005; Hord and Hirsh, 2008; Milbrey et al., 2007; Timperley et al., 2007). <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The school leaders and teachers interviewed provided views on the factors that support or hinder the effectiveness of PLGs. These are discussed below. **//<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Views on what supports the effectiveness of PLGs //** **//<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Views on what hinders the effectiveness of PLGs //** <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Consideration of the experiences of these two schools, and findings from previous research, allows a number of suggestions to be made.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">All teachers were expected to be a member of a group (they were able to choose which one).
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">School leaders had clear expectations for the groups (including that the groups would clarify their focus and arrange a cycle of meetings). However, teachers had flexibility to determine approaches to their own learning within the groups.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Meeting opportunities were provided, for example, instead of other professional development sessions or staff briefings, and typically took place a number of times per term. Resources were also provided to allow for classroom observations and visits to other schools if necessary.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">It was expected that there would be follow up in addition to scheduled meetings. (In school A there were meetings with peer coaches and observations to support practice. Follow up in school B included surveying students and visiting other school.)
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The groups were designed to be cross-curricular, and the focus topics were of general relevance to teaching and learning.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">A range of teachers was represented in each group (different lengths of teaching experience, and from different learning areas).
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Members of the school leadership team were actively involved in the groups.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The groups were seen as components of, and linked to, other professional learning taking place in the school.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Schools |||||||| <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">A |||||||| <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">B ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Teachers || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">1 || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">2 || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">3 || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">4 || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">1 || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">2 || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">3 || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">4 ||
 * //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Shared values // || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">M || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">M || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">M || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">M || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">H || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">H || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">H || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">M ||
 * //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Collective responsibility // || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">M || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">L || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">M || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">M || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">H || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">H || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">M || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">M ||
 * //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Collaboration // || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">H || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">M || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">L || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">H || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">H || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">H || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">H || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">M ||
 * //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Group learning // || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">M || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">H || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">L || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">M || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">M || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">H || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">M || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">H ||
 * //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Trust, respect, support // || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">H || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">H || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">H || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">H || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">H || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">H || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">H || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">H ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Level key: L = low, M = medium, H =high ||
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The nature of the groups (as indicated in table 2) was generally supportive of professional learning.
 * 2) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The focus of the groups was either directly, or ultimately, linked to enhancing student learning. Many group members engaged in reflective professional inquiry, and a number of groups found that considering student voice was helpful in this process.
 * 3) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The organisation and operation of the PLGs was also supportive. The groups had been established, and were actively supported, by the senior management team. Leadership had also developed at the group level. Time and other resources had been provided. However, neither school had used external expertise to any extent. Both considered that they had sufficient internal capability for their PLGs to be successful.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The framework for the groups established by the school leaders was seen to be important. There were also clear expectations regarding the involvement of all teachers, and reporting back to the wider staff.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The provision of choice within the framework provided was appreciated by teachers. Teachers were able to choose which group they wished to join. Individual groups could make choices to best meet their professional learning needs, and this enhanced teacher ownership of the process. For example, group members could choose a leader, determine the particular focus, and plan meetings and follow up activities.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">It was considered that the general focus areas for the groups supported professional learning and collaboration across department boundaries.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Both schools had developed a culture that valued professional learning over a period of time. This provided a supportive environment for the PLGs to operate when they were established. Having all teachers involved also sent a message to staff that the groups were important. The schools had valued the contributions and suggestions made by the PLGs.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Because of the many and varied challenges that busy teachers have to cope with in their work, some may feel that their involvement is constrained as a consequence.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">It is evident that in many groups there will be a mixture of people with a variety of personalities and preferred ways of working. In some cases this may impact on the level of collegiality.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Support for group processes may further enhance the effectiveness of the PLGs, for example, assistance to develop the facilitation role of group leaders. The PLGs that had openly discussed protocols for group discussion found that this provided a good framework for future meetings. It may also be helpful to develop skills in teacher talk that are likely to significantly change thinking and practice, and create better outcomes for students. (Such an approach is outlined by Annan et al., 2003.) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The schools had taken responsibility for the PLGs with little outside input, and they saw that this strengthened them. However, some external input could be valuable (as noted by Milbrey et al., 2007). One teacher suggested: <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">External input would be useful to introduce fresh ideas, new reflections, up to date ideas, and may allow for affirmation of practice. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">While schools may consider that they had an appreciation of the level of effectiveness of their PLGs, it will be helpful to carry out a formal evaluation of both the ways in which the groups operate and the outcomes that they are achieving. (This has been emphasised by Bolam et al., 2005.) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">The challenges for the case study and other schools will be to maximise factors that support the effectiveness of PLGs, and to seek to mitigate factors that may hinder their effectiveness. **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Conclusion ** <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">A number of characteristics of secondary schools, particularly their departmental structures, may create challenges for developing PLGs that are cross-curricular in nature, and teachers may not easily acknowledge their usefulness. However, teachers frequently report that when they have the opportunity to meet in PLGs, such groups are helpful to their professional learning. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">Previous research suggests, and the case studies indicate, that such groups can be an effective approach to promote teachers’ professional learning, and that they can support positive outcomes in secondary schools at this time of educational change. As one teacher commented at the end of her interview: <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 110%; text-align: justify;">It’s good that it gets people talking – good professional talk, with people from different departments. This allows different perspectives. You feel as though you may make a difference at the end of it!

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